Emerging technologies and clinical translation of urine-based liquid biopsy in urological cancers

Urine-based liquid biopsy represents a transformative, non-invasive diagnostic approach that enables the molecular profiling of tumor-derived biomarkers shed into the urinary tract. By overcoming the limitations of traditional tissue biopsies, this methodology facilitates early cancer detection, real-time monitoring of therapeutic response, and longitudinal disease surveillance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current urine-based liquid biopsy platforms, with a focus on protein and RNA biomarkers in urological cancers. We highlight the clinical relevance of these biomarkers and discuss technological innovations-including multi-omics integration, machine learning applications, and point-of-care testing-that are expanding their diagnostic utility. By leveraging the unique anatomical accessibility of urological malignancies via urine sampling, this field is poised to significantly enhance precision oncology.