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The knee joint is the most complicated joint in the body. It consists of three articulations– two tibiofemoral and one patellofemoral. As is characteristic of synovial joints, the knee joint has a thin articular capsule that partially surrounds this joint cavity. Additionally, several ligaments, muscles, and cartilaginous structures support the movement of the knee.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 16, 2026

Using Gold-standard Gait Analysis Methods to Assess Experience Effects on Lower-limb Mechanics During Moderate High-heeled Jogging and Running
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Optimizing toe joint stiffness to improve human-like walking.

Kwonseung Cho1, Kang-Woo Lee1, Pilwon Hur2

  • 1Department of Mechanical and Robotics Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, South Korea.

Scientific Reports
|September 26, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Optimizing toe joint stiffness improves walking. A simulation and human experiment found a stiffness of 0.98 Nm/deg enhances rollover and push-off, boosting user satisfaction and gait performance.

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Robotics
  • Human Locomotion

Background:

  • The human metatarsophalangeal joint (toe joint) is crucial for effective gait, supporting body weight and enabling smooth heel-to-toe rollover and push-off.
  • Optimal toe joint stiffness is vital for both biological and robotic locomotion, but remains challenging to determine.
  • Understanding joint mechanics is key to improving assistive devices and prosthetic design.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the optimal stiffness of the human toe joint for improved walking performance using simulation and experimental approaches.
  • To identify a single, practical stiffness value for passive devices that balances rollover and push-off mechanics.
  • To evaluate the impact of adjustable toe joint stiffness on subjective satisfaction and spatiotemporal gait parameters in humans.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized a simulation-based trajectory optimization approach with a bipedal model to analyze the effects of varying toe joint stiffness.
  • Extracted a representative stiffness value (0.98 Nm/deg) by averaging time-varying stiffness during the push-off phase from simulations.
  • Conducted human walking experiments with adjustable toe joint boots across different stiffness conditions.

Main Results:

  • Simulation results indicated that lower toe joint stiffness facilitates rollover, while higher stiffness enhances push-off.
  • The experimentally tested stiffness of 0.98 Nm/deg resulted in the highest subjective satisfaction and improved spatiotemporal gait outcomes.
  • Qualitative trends, including toe joint moment progression and heel-off timing, showed consistency between simulation and experimental findings.

Conclusions:

  • Toe joint stiffness significantly influences walking mechanics, with a balance needed between rollover and push-off.
  • A representative stiffness value of 0.98 Nm/deg, derived from simulations, demonstrated potential for enhancing walking performance and user experience in human experiments.
  • Tuning toe joint stiffness presents a promising strategy for improving gait efficiency and comfort in both biological and robotic systems.