A Point-Line-Area Paradigm: 3D Printing for Next-Generation Health Monitoring Sensors

Three-dimensional printing technology is fundamentally reshaping the design and fabrication of health monitoring sensors. While it holds great promise for achieving miniaturization, multi-material integration, and personalized customization, the lack of a clear selection framework hinders the optimal matching of printing technologies to specific sensor requirements. This review presents a classification framework based on existing standards and specifically designed to address sensor-related requirements, categorizing 3D printing technologies into point-based, line-based, and area-based modalities according to their fundamental fabrication unit. This framework directly bridges the capabilities of each modality, such as nanoscale resolution, multi-material versatility, and high-throughput production, with the critical demands of modern health monitoring sensors. We systematically demonstrate how this approach guides technology selection: Point-based methods (e.g., stereolithography, inkjet) enable micron-scale features for ultra-sensitive detection; line-based techniques (e.g., Direct Ink Writing, Fused Filament Fabrication) excel in multi-material integration for creating complex functional devices such as sweat-sensing patches; and area-based approaches (e.g., Digital Light Processing) facilitate rapid production of sensor arrays and intricate structures for applications like continuous glucose monitoring. The point-line-area paradigm offers a powerful heuristic for designing and manufacturing next-generation health monitoring sensors. We also discuss strategies to overcome existing challenges, including material biocompatibility and cross-scale manufacturing, through the integration of AI-driven design and stimuli-responsive materials. This framework not only clarifies the current research landscape but also accelerates the development of intelligent, personalized, and sustainable health monitoring systems.