Biodegradation of the widely used amide herbicides: Microbial resources, catabolic pathways and molecular mechanisms

Amide herbicides (AHs) are widely used in agricultural practices due to their high efficacy in controlling weeds. However, the excessive application of AHs has led to their widespread presence in various environmental matrices, including soil, air, and water. The omnipresence of AHs residues raises concerns about potential risks to the environment and non-target organisms due to their toxic characteristics. Currently, efforts are being made to identify an environmentally sustainable and economically viable method for the removal of AHs and their residues from contaminated sites, aiming to promote environmental sustainability. This review synthesizes existing literature to outline the toxicological profiles and applications of the seven AHs. A primary focus is placed on the microorganisms and functional genes involved in the degradation pathways of these herbicides, highlighting their roles in the breakdown of these compounds. Additionally, the most recent advances in computational insights into the molecular basis of AHs degradation are outlined, accompanied by critical perspectives and future research directions. This review may contribute to the mechanistic understanding of AHs biodegradation, providing theoretical and practical bases for bioremediating AHs-contaminated environments.