Environmental micropaint: a primary review of sampling techniques and analytical approaches

Paint particles, commonly referred to as micropaints, represent an emerging yet underexplored class of environmental contaminants, distinct from conventional microplastics in terms of origin, composition, and ecological risk. Predominantly sources from the degradation of coated surfaces and antifouling paints, micropaints are enriched with Heavy metals and biocidal additives, posing unique environmental and toxicological threats. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of micropaints, focusing on their occurrence across aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric systems, and critically examines sampling strategies and analytical methodologies applied in recent studies. We synthesize findings from 74 original research articles, highlighting key sampling techniques tailored to diverse environmental matrices including sediments, soils, biota, dust, and water. Special emphasis is placed on the limitations of current pre-treatment procedures, analytical challenges in differentiating micropaints from microplastics, and the need for standardized protocols. Additionally, we discuss the environmental pathways, bioaccumulation potential, and ecotoxicological effects of micropaints, particularly in coastal zones affected by antifouling paints. This review identifies critical knowledge gaps and offers recommendations for future research to better understand the environmental fate, risks, and regulatory implications of micropaint pollution.