Optoelectronic Interfaces for Nongenetic Modulation of Excitable Tissues

Precise modulation of excitable tissues-including neurons and cardiomyocytes-is essential for both understanding physiological functions and developing advanced therapies for neurological and cardiac disorders. Conventional modulation techniques such as electrical stimulation, pharmacological intervention, and optogenetics, face limitations in terms of invasiveness, spatiotemporal resolution, and/or requirement for genetic modulation. Optoelectronic interfaces based on light-matter interaction have emerged as promising alternatives. These platforms offer wireless, nongenetic modulation capabilities with high spatiotemporal resolution and minimal invasiveness and risks of infection. Here, a summary of recent advances in nongenetic optoelectronic modulation strategies is presented. Aspects such as material selection and processing, device designs, working principles, and fabrication techniques are discussed. Then, key characterization methodologies, including benchtop assessments and validation within the living systems are discussed. Alongside the discussion, representative applications across in vitro and in vivo models of cardiac and central/peripheral nervous systems are highlighted. Finally, future directions and clinical opportunities, aiming to provide a thorough reference for the continued development of this field for both fundamental research and next-generation therapeutic applications are explored.