Cost-effectiveness analysis in primary care research: A practical guide for early-career researchers

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is an important tool for guiding decisions on resource allocation in primary health care (PHC), particularly in low- and middle-income countries that face constrained budgets and competing health priorities. Despite its potential, many early-career primary care researchers struggle with the theoretical and methodological aspects of CEA. This article aims to build capacity in CEA application by providing an accessible guide. It explains fundamental concepts, describes methodological steps, examines quality standards and illustrates real-world applications through detailed case studies from rural settings in Kenya and South Africa. The objective is to equip emerging researchers with the knowledge and skills to embed economic thinking into primary care research and contribute meaningfully to improving the efficiency and equity of health service delivery.