Toward a Sustainable Future: A Holistic Environmental, Social, and Economic Assessment of Industrial Recycling for...

The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries has raised concerns about resource scarcity, battery accident risks, and end-of-life battery management. All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) are emerging as a promising alternative due to their higher energy density and thermal stability. However, the large-scale production of ASSBs necessitates the development of sustainable recycling strategies to address resource constraints and environmental challenges. This study proposes an innovative framework integrating life cycle assessment (LCA) and multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) to evaluate the environmental, social, and economic performance of three recycling methods, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and direct recycling, for two types of oxide-based ASSBs (with LLZO and LATP electrolytes). The results indicate that hydrometallurgical recycling, particularly for LLZO batteries, offers the most sustainable solution by balancing environmental benefits, social impact, and cost-effectiveness. Direct recycling, while economically advantageous, faces technical uncertainties. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses further validate the robustness of the findings, providing a comprehensive decision-making tool for future battery disposal strategies.