Temperature-dependent microbial dynamics in touchless sensor faucets during short-term stagnation

Microbial contamination in building plumbing systems poses significant risks to public health at the point of use. Stagnation and warm temperatures are well-known drivers of microbial regrowth, but the effects of common short-term stagnation in touchless sensor faucets-widely used for hygiene and comfort-remain poorly understood. Here we show that microbial water quality in touchless sensor faucets changes during short-term stagnation (0.25-10 h) at varying temperatures (10, 30, and 40 °C). We identify two pivotal time points-2 and 4 h-where microbial diversity decreases and Legionella pneumophila concentrations increase significantly, driven by accelerated chlorine decay and biofilm contributions. Heating to 30 °C maximizes microbial biomass (measured as ATP) but minimizes L. pneumophila proliferation, whereas 40 °C reduces biomass while promoting L. pneumophila growth. These findings reveal a temperature-dependent microbial water quality guarantee period of 2-4 h, beyond which flushing is necessary to mitigate health risks. Optimizing faucet temperatures between 30 and 40 °C could balance microbial safety, user comfort, and energy efficiency, offering practical guidance for managing water quality in modern plumbing systems.