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Related Concept Videos

Ionic Bonds00:42

Ionic Bonds

127.8K
Overview
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Ionic compounds are rigid and brittle when solid and may dissociate into their constituent ions in water. Covalent compounds, by contrast, remain intact unless a chemical reaction breaks them.
Opposing Charges Hold Ions Together in Ionic Compounds
Ionic bonds are reversible electrostatic interactions between ions...
127.8K
Covalent Bonds01:08

Covalent Bonds

9.8K
Overview
When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells, they create a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity—the force with which shared electrons are pulled towards an atom—determines how the electrons are shared. Molecules formed with covalent bonds can be either polar or nonpolar. Atoms with similar electronegativities form nonpolar covalent bonds; the electrons are shared equally. Atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally,...
9.8K
Covalent Bonds01:29

Covalent Bonds

158.6K
Overview
158.6K
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer02:48

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

48.6K
Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell. Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts), and their constituent ions are held together by ionic bonds: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions. 
48.6K
Ions as Acids and Bases02:54

Ions as Acids and Bases

26.1K
Salts with Acidic Ions
Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations and anions, either of which may be capable of undergoing an acid or base ionization reaction with water. Aqueous salt solutions, therefore, may be acidic, basic, or neutral, depending on the relative acid-base strengths of the salt’s constituent ions. For example, dissolving the ammonium chloride in water results in its dissociation, as described by the equation:
26.1K
Types of Chemical Bonds02:37

Types of Chemical Bonds

93.5K
Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and formation of different bonds. Chemical bonding is central to chemistry; it explains how atoms or ions bond together to form molecules. It explains why some bonds are strong and others are weak, or why one carbon bonds with two oxygens and not three; why water is H2O and not H4O. 
93.5K

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Simultaneous Multi-surface Anodizations and Stair-like Reverse Biases Detachment of Anodic Aluminum Oxides in Sulfuric and Oxalic Acid Electrolyte
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Mixed Ionic-Covalent Bonds Achieve Durable Acidic Water Oxidation.

Shicheng Zhu1, Ruoou Yang1, Yingying Xu2

  • 1State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould Technology, and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, P. R. China.

Journal of the American Chemical Society
|October 14, 2025
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A new catalyst stabilizes oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts in proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis, overcoming degradation issues. This breakthrough enhances catalyst stability and efficiency for industrial applications.

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Area of Science:

  • Electrochemistry
  • Materials Science
  • Catalysis

Background:

  • Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is crucial for green hydrogen production.
  • Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalyst instability under acidic conditions hinders PEM electrolyzer efficiency and longevity.
  • Existing catalysts suffer from lattice oxygen overoxidation and metal leaching.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a highly stable and efficient OER catalyst for PEM water electrolysis.
  • To address the coupled degradation mechanisms affecting current OER catalysts.
  • To improve the overall performance and durability of PEM electrolyzers.

Main Methods:

  • Synthesis of an electronegativity-guided Li- and Ru-doped spinel Co3O4 (LRCO) catalyst.
  • Characterization using operando studies to investigate reaction mechanisms.
  • Testing catalyst performance in half-cell and integrated PEM electrolyzer configurations.

Main Results:

  • The LRCO catalyst exhibits mixed Li-O (ionic) and Ru/Co-O (covalent) bonding, enhancing stability.
  • Li-O bonds anchor lattice oxygen, while Ru-O-Co electron sharing modulates metal valence states, preventing overoxidation.
  • Achieved a record-low overpotential of 141 mV at 10 mA cm-2 with over 3,300 hours of stability.
  • Integrated PEM electrolyzers demonstrated over 720 hours of stable operation at 1 A cm-2.

Conclusions:

  • The designed LRCO catalyst effectively suppresses degradation pathways in acidic media.
  • This catalyst represents a significant advancement towards robust and efficient PEM water electrolysis.
  • The findings pave the way for next-generation electrolyzers meeting industrial demands.