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Updated: Jan 15, 2026

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Published on: December 14, 2014
Placebo and nocebo effects
Belina Rodrigues1, Nandini Raghuraman, Roni Shafir
1Department of Pain and Translation Symptom Science | Placebo Beyond Opinions Center, School of Nursing, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.
Abstract:
We introduce the Psychoneurobiology, Individualization, and Normalization (PIN) framework of placebo and nocebo effects. Traditionally, research primarily focused on psychoneurobiological mechanisms of these effects, the Psychoneurobiology phase. Recently, AI-driven tools are being used to predict placebo/nocebo responses, whereas digital therapeutics like virtual reality and artificial intelligence-assisted cognitive training are being used to enhance and personalize these effects, the Individualization phase. We envision the Normalization phase, where insights from the 2 phases are integrated into mainstream medicine. This includes incorporating open-label and dose-extending placebos into treatment protocols and providing healthcare professionals with formal training in placebo and nocebo effects, as well as expectation management interventions.
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