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Nuclear Binding Energy

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect indicates a “loss” in mass of 4.0331 amu – 4.0026 amu = 0.0305 amu. The loss in mass accompanying the formation of an atom from protons, neutrons, and electrons is due to the conversion of that mass into energy that is evolved as the atom forms. The nuclear binding energy is the energy produced when the atoms’ nucleons are bound...

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin State Population Distribution

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin State Population Distribution

Near absolute zero temperatures, in the presence of a magnetic field, the majority of nuclei prefer the lower energy spin-up state to the higher energy spin-down state. As temperatures increase, the energy from thermal collisions distributes the spins more equally between the two states. The Boltzmann distribution equation gives the ratio of the number of spins predicted in the spin −½ (N−) and spin +½ (N+) states.

Thomson's e/m Experiment

Thomson's e/m Experiment

In a beam of charged particles created by a heated cathode, the particles move at different speeds. However, many applications need a beam with uniform particle speeds. An arrangement known as a velocity selector uses electric and magnetic fields to pick particles with a particular speed from the beam.
A particle with charge q, speed v, and mass m enters an area from the top, where the magnetic and electric fields are perpendicular both to the particle's motion and to one another. The magnetic...

Electron Behavior

Electron Behavior

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces associated with energy levels called shells and are further organized into subshells and orbitals within each shell.
Electrons Orbit the Nucleus
Electrons are found in specific locations outside of the nucleus. The shell in which an electron resides indicates the general energy level of the electron: those closer to the nucleus have less energy,...

Electron Behavior

Electron Behavior

Overview
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that are attracted to an orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in locations that are associated with energy levels called shells and are further organized into sub-shells and orbitals within each shell.
Electrons Orbit the Nucleus
Electrons are found in specific locations outside of the nucleus. The shell in which an electron resides indicates the general energy level of the electron: those closer to the...

Calorimetry

Calorimetry

When objects at different temperatures are placed in contact with each other but isolated from everything else, they attain thermal equilibrium. A container that prevents heat transfer in or out is called a calorimeter, and the use of a calorimeter to make measurements is called calorimetry. Generally, these measurements involve heat or specific heat capacity. The term "calorimetry problem" is used for any problem where the specified objects are thermally isolated from their...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 6, 2026

Setting Limits on Supersymmetry Using Simplified Models

Setting Limits on Supersymmetry Using Simplified Models

Published on: November 15, 2013

Most Stringent Bound on Electron Neutrino Mass Obtained with a Scalable Low-Temperature Microcalorimeter Array.

B K Alpert¹, M Balata², D T Becker³

¹National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, Colorado, USA.

Physical Review Letters

|October 19, 2025

Summary

Researchers set a new record for the most stringent upper bound on neutrino mass using electron capture decay measurements. The HOLMES experiment achieved a limit of less than 27 eV/c², advancing direct neutrino mass measurements.

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Last Updated: Jan 6, 2026

Setting Limits on Supersymmetry Using Simplified Models

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Published on: November 15, 2013

Angle-resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy At Ultra-low Temperatures

Angle-resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy At Ultra-low Temperatures

Published on: October 9, 2012

Preparing an Isotopically Pure 229Th Ion Beam for Studies of 229mTh

Preparing an Isotopically Pure 229Th Ion Beam for Studies of 229mTh

Published on: May 3, 2019

Area of Science:

Particle Physics
Cosmology
Nuclear Physics

Background:

Determining the absolute neutrino mass scale is crucial for the Standard Model and cosmology.
Direct kinematic measurements offer a model-independent approach to neutrino mass determination.

Purpose of the Study:

To establish the most stringent upper bound on the effective electron neutrino mass.
To validate the feasibility of ^{163}Ho calorimetry for future neutrino mass experiments.

Main Methods:

Utilized the HOLMES experiment with ion-implanted transition-edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeters.
Recorded 7×10⁷ electron capture decay events of ^{163}Ho over two months.
Employed a Bayesian statistical analysis with high-resolution calorimetry (6 eV FWHM).

Main Results:

Achieved the most stringent upper bound on the effective electron neutrino mass: m_β < 27 eV/c² at 90% credibility.
Demonstrated the capability of TES microcalorimeters for precise calorimetric measurements.

Conclusions:

The ^{163}Ho calorimetric technique is validated for next-generation neutrino mass experiments.
Scalable TES-based microcalorimetry shows potential to significantly improve neutrino mass sensitivity.