Development of a 3D-printed canine cardiac disease model for interventional procedure training

Minimally invasive catheter-based techniques for cardiac diseases, such as patent ductus arteriosus occlusion, pulmonic stenosis balloon valvuloplasty, atrial septal defect occlusion and transseptal approaches, have gained popularity in veterinary cardiology owing to their high success and low complication rates. However, the technical complexity of these procedures and the lack of accessible training opportunities have limited their widespread adoption in clinical practice. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of a 3D-printed canine cardiac model as a simulator-based training tool for improving proficiency in these interventional procedures. The 3D model was developed by using computed tomography (CT) data of a dog diagnosed with type IIa patent ductus arteriosus. A virtual prototype of the model was created by segmenting the CT data. A hard-type photopolymer resin was used for 3D printing the model to ensure durability. To enhance the structural stability and applicability of the model, iterative optimisation was carried out by incorporating feedback from testers who used it for the different procedural simulations. The model accurately replicated cardiovascular structures and artificial defects, such as atrial and ventricular septal defects. Patent ductus arteriosus occlusion, pulmonic stenosis balloon valvuloplasty, atrial septal defect occlusion and transseptal approaches were performed, in order to evaluate the compatibility of the model with fluoroscopy. To assess the effectiveness of the model as a training tool, time-trial assessments and pre- and post-training evaluations involving six participants were conducted. The 3D-printed canine cardiac model improved procedural efficiency and understanding of cardiac anatomy. The 3D-printed model of canine cardiac diseases introduced here is scalable and valuable as a teaching tool in veterinary interventional cardiology.