Bacterial membrane vesicles: from biogenesis to antibiotic resistance

Bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) are a heterogeneous group of lipid-bound structures produced by bacteria. Antibiotic stress aggravates the secretion of MVs that contributes to the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance. This review provides a focused, resistance-oriented perspective on the interplay between MVs and antibiotic resistance. We outline MV biogenesis, emphasizing the distinct formation mechanisms of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. We further focus on the secretion of MVs under antibiotic stress, highlighting pathways such as bacterial envelope stress, SOS response, and cell wall disruption. The pivotal role of MVs in bacterial antibiotic resistance is also elucidated, including neutralizing antibiotics, absorbing phages, and facilitating drug efflux, biofilm formation, and horizontal gene transfer. Current challenges and future prospects for elucidating MV-mediated mechanisms in antibiotic resistance are discussed.