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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 13, 2026

Using Practice Testing, Public Speaking, and Source Monitoring to Examine the Influences of Learning Strategies and Stress on Episodic Memory
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Retrieval Competition in Proactive Interference: Effects of Encoding Strength and Consolidation in the Modified

Yahui Zhang1, Weihai Tang2, Xiping Liu2

  • 1Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China.

Behavioral Sciences (Basel, Switzerland)
|October 29, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Encoding strength boosts memory recall but doesn't change proactive interference (PI). However, consolidation processes influence PI's persistence over time, especially in associative memory tasks.

Keywords:
Modified Modified Free Recall (MMFR)associative dependencyconsolidationintegration and differentiationproactive interferenceretrieval competition

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Neuroscience
  • Memory Research

Background:

  • Proactive interference (PI) is a phenomenon where prior learning hinders new learning.
  • Encoding strength and memory consolidation are key factors influencing memory performance and interference.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how encoding strength and consolidation affect proactive interference in associative memory.
  • To differentiate the roles of representational linkages and retrieval competition in PI.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized a Modified Modified Free Recall (MMFR) paradigm with overlapping (A-B, A-C) and non-overlapping (E-F, G-H) word pairs.
  • Manipulated encoding strength of List 1 (one vs. three repetitions) and tested recall immediately and after a 24-h delay.
  • Analyzed PI magnitude, overall recall, and co-retrieval patterns.

Main Results:

  • Increased encoding strength improved overall recall but did not change initial PI magnitude.
  • PI was significantly reduced after a 24-h delay, particularly with weak initial encoding.
  • Stronger initial encoding led to persistent, albeit attenuated, PI after the delay, suggesting differential consolidation.
  • Co-retrieval analyses confirmed associative dependencies between related items (B and C).

Conclusions:

  • Encoding strength enhances memory recall but does not directly impact the initial level of proactive interference.
  • Consolidation processes significantly modulate the persistence of proactive interference over time.
  • Overlapping cues create integrated representations supporting co-retrieval but can also induce retrieval competition leading to PI.