Carbon nanodots in breast cancer management: emerging tools for diagnosis and therapy

Breast cancer is still a major global health issue and calls for innovative approaches for both early detection and effective treatment. Because of their distinct optical characteristics, biocompatibility and ease of surface functionalisation, carbon nanodots (CANDs), a novel class of carbon-based nanomaterials, have become effective agents in cancer nanomedicine. This review comprehensively explores the synthesis, physicochemical characteristics and functionalisation strategies of CANDs relevant to oncological applications. The review entails their mechanisms of action, including cellular uptake, tumour microenvironment (TME) modulation and reactive oxygen species generation. CANDs offer remarkable potential in breast cancer diagnosis through fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic and MRI enhancement, and biosensing, with advances towards point-of-care diagnostics. Therapeutically, CANDs serve as carriers for drug, gene and small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery, and enable modalities such as photothermal, photodynamic and chemo-phototherapy, with emerging applications in immunotherapy. Additionally, theranostic systems integrating diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities are highlighted. The review also addresses clinical progress, patents and translational challenges while projecting future directions involving AI and hybrid nanodots, paving the way for next-generation breast cancer management.