Lemon membrane-vesicles as sustainable nanovehicles for spinach biostimulation

Plant-derived nanovesicles represent a promising tool for enhancing nutrient and bioactive compound delivery in agriculture. Lemon-pulp-derived vesicles were characterized in terms of mineral and bioactive content, revealing stable compartmentalization of both macro- and micronutrients alongside flavonoids such as hesperidin. Foliar application of these vesicles on spinach culture promoted plant growth, with Zn encapsulation further enhancing biomass accumulation compared to free Zn. This suggested an improvement of nutrient transport and bioavailability. Vesicle treatments modulated spinach secondary metabolism, delivering intrinsic flavonoids to recipient tissues and inducing the accumulation of phenolic compounds not naturally present. Hormonal profiling indicated targeted effects on SA, IAA and ABA levels, while mineral analyses confirmed no adverse impact on nutrient uptake. These findings demonstrate that lemon-derived nanovesicles function as dual biostimulants and nutrient carriers, offering a novel strategy for improving crop performance, nutritional value, and bioactive enrichment.