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Language, whether spoken, signed, or written, consists of specific components: lexicon and grammar. The lexicon is the vocabulary of a language, comprising its words. Grammar is the set of rules used to convey meaning through the lexicon. For example, English grammar adds “-ed” to most verbs to indicate past tense. Words are formed by combining phonemes, which are the basic sound units of a language. Different languages have different sets of phonemes (e.g., “ah” vs.
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Updated: Jan 12, 2026

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Lookback supports semi-parallel, just-in-time processing in second language written composition.

Evgeny Chukharev1, Jens Roeser2, Mark Torrance2

  • 1Department of English, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America.

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|November 3, 2025
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Writers hesitate more and look back more frequently when composing in a second language (L2) compared to their first language (L1). This lookback behavior in L2 writing helps refresh memory for subsequent text generation.

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Applied Linguistics
  • Writing Studies

Background:

  • Writing involves complex cognitive processes, including content generation and motor execution.
  • Information loss can occur during writing, especially when composing in a non-native language.
  • Looking back at previously written text may aid in maintaining writing fluency.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if hesitation and lookback patterns differ between first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing.
  • To determine if these patterns support the theory that lookback refreshes memory during writing.

Main Methods:

  • 39 university students composed argumentative essays on keyboards in both L1 (English) and L2 (Spanish).
  • Keystroke logging and eye-tracking monitored writing processes, focusing on hesitations without error correction.
  • Analysis quantified lookback frequency, duration, and depth within the text.

Main Results:

  • Hesitation frequency and duration were significantly higher during L2 writing.
  • Lookback occurred more often and involved deeper engagement with prior text in L2.
  • Sentence-initial lookback was common in both L1 and L2, but more extensive in L2.

Conclusions:

  • The observed patterns of increased hesitation and lookback in L2 writing support the hypothesis.
  • Lookback appears to function as a memory-refreshing mechanism for writers, particularly in L2 contexts.