Dynamic oxygen sensing technology: progress from large-scale equipment to portable monitoring

Dynamic oxygen sensing technology facilitates the early diagnosis of diseases, the optimization of treatment, and the enhancement of athletic performance by monitoring oxygen levels in human tissues and bodily fluids. While traditional methods, such as blood gas analysis, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry, provide high accuracy, their complexity and high cost limit the feasibility of continuous real-time monitoring. Recent technological breakthroughs in wearable devices have significantly improved sensor sensitivity, biocompatibility, and user convenience by combining electrochemical and optical sensing with nanotechnology, flexible electronics, and artificial intelligence. This review systematically evaluates advancements in portable dynamic oxygen sensing technologies, focusing on key metrics such as partial pressure of oxygen (pO₂), oxygen saturation (SO₂), oxygen uptake (VO₂), and related biomarkers, as well as their applications in healthcare and performance monitoring. It addresses gaps in prior reviews that often focused narrowly on oxygen detection technologies or probe design, without integrating the development and application of these core oxygen metrics in portable devices. By providing an integrated analysis of these metrics, this review advances research and clinical applications.