Towards improved ecosystem service assessments in marine systems: A systematic review and evaluation of effectiveness

Ecosystem service assessments (ESA) are widely used to support marine management, yet their application varies across regions due to differences in governance frameworks, data availability, and methodological approaches. This study systematically reviews ESA methods and tools applied in offshore areas of the Baltic Sea, South Atlantic Ocean, and Western Mediterranean Sea, evaluating their effectiveness in supporting sustainable marine management with a specific focus on offshore wind farms, marine protected areas, and fishing activities. The findings reveal geographical variations in ESA implementation, highlighting strengths and limitations in their ability to inform policy and decision-making. While methodological diversity enhances ESA's capacity to capture complex socio-ecological interactions, inconsistencies in application reduce its effectiveness. Addressing these gaps requires refining methodological approaches, strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration, and improving the link between ESA and marine governance. This research provides insights into the current state of ESA applications and offers recommendations for enhancing their role in ecosystem-based marine planning and policy integration.