Advancing plant-based fat substitutes: structural, flavor, and color strategies for 3D/4D printing applications

Fats play vital roles in food processing by improving flavor, texture, and moisture. However, their high saturated fat content may raise health concerns. Researchers are now developing plant-based alternatives as healthier, sustainable fat substitutes. This review comprehensively examines the structural, flavor, and color strategies employed by plant-based materials to replicate fats, alongside evaluating the advantages and limitations of various preparation methods. Special attention is given to the role of 3D and 4D printing technologies in advancing fat substitute development. Among the most promising methods are hydrogels, oleogels, and emulsion gels. However, hydrogel lacks fatty flavor, while oleogel is susceptible to oxidation. Emulsion gels stand out for their versatility in adjusting structure, flavor, and color. Looking ahead, the integration of 4D printing presents exciting potential for designing customized plant-based fat substitutes and precisely controlling their properties, driving significant advancements in food manufacturing toward precision, personalization, and sustainability.