Functional and Metabolic Heterogeneity of Dendritic Cells in Self-Tolerance and Autoimmunity

Dendritic cells (DCs) demonstrate remarkable functional and metabolic heterogeneity that governs the balance between immune tolerance and autoimmune pathogenesis. Under homeostatic conditions, tolerogenic DC subsets maintain immunological equilibrium through distinct metabolic programs and the production of immunoregulatory metabolites, promoting T cell anergy and regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation. In contrast, autoimmune conditions trigger pathogenic metabolic rewiring, shifting DCs toward glycolysis and enhanced lipid synthesis, which drives DC hyperactivation and breakdown of self-tolerance. This metabolic reprogramming is coordinately regulated by external microenvironmental cues and internal signaling pathways, leading to heterogeneous DC responses in diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and psoriasis. Targeting metabolic regulators offers promising therapeutic strategies to restore immune tolerance and prevent harmful autoimmunity and inflammation. The review highlights the intricate interplay between DC metabolism and function, emphasizing how metabolic heterogeneity underpins their dual roles in immune regulation and autoimmunity. Future exploration of subset-specific metabolic preferences and spatiotemporal metabolic dynamics will facilitate the development of precision immunotherapies for autoimmune diseases.