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Threats to Biodiversity

Threats to Biodiversity

There have been five major extinction events throughout geological history, resulting in the elimination of biodiversity, followed by a rebound of species that adapted to the new conditions. In the current geological epoch, the Holocene, there is a sixth extinction event in progress. This mass extinction has been attributed to human activities and is thus provisionally called the Anthropocene. In 2019 the human population reached 7.7 billion people and is projected to comprise 10 billion by...

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Human civilization relies on biodiversity in many ways. Sudden changes in species biodiversity result in environmental changes that can modify weather patterns and therefore human civilizations.

Symbiosis

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Symbiotic relationships are long-term, close interactions between individuals of different species that affect the distribution and abundance of those species. When a relationship is beneficial to both species, this is called mutualism. When the relationship is beneficial to one species but neither beneficial nor harmful to the other species, this is called commensalism. When one organism is harmed to benefit another, the relationship is known as parasitism. These types of relationships often...

Conservation of Small Populations

Conservation of Small Populations

Small population sizes put a species at extreme risk of extinction due to a lack of variation, and a consequent decrease in adaptability. This weakens the chances of survival under pressures such as climate change, competition from other species, or new diseases. Large populations are more likely to survive pressures such as these, as such populations are more likely to harbor individuals that have genetic variants that are adaptive under new stresses. Small populations are much less...

Conservation of Declining Populations

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Habitat Fragmentation

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Habitat fragmentation describes the division of a more extensive, continuous habitat into smaller, discontinuous areas. Human activities such as land conversion, as well as slower geological processes leading to changes in the physical environment, are the two leading causes of habitat fragmentation. The fragmentation process typically follows the same steps: perforation, dissection, fragmentation, shrinkage, and attrition.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 11, 2026

A Method for Quantifying Foliage-Dwelling Arthropods

A Method for Quantifying Foliage-Dwelling Arthropods

Published on: October 20, 2019

Unlocking Tropical Forest Complexity: How Tree Assemblages in Secondary Forests Boost Biodiversity Conservation.

Maïri Souza Oliveira^1,2, Maxime Lenormand¹, Sandra Luque¹

¹INRAE, National Research Institute on Agriculture, Food & the Environment, TETIS Research Unit, Maison de la Télédétection Montpellier France.

Ecology and Evolution

|November 12, 2025

Summary

This study introduces a national method to map tropical forest ecosystems using dominant tree species as indicators. It assesses secondary forests, crucial for conservation, and highlights challenges in data collection.

Keywords:

GBF 2030 targets Sentinel‐2 forest ecosystem hierarchical clustering network analysis random forest

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Last Updated: Jan 11, 2026

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Published on: January 19, 2020

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Published on: April 18, 2025

Area of Science:

Ecology
Forest Science
Conservation Biology

Background:

Secondary forests are vital for tropical biodiversity and conservation goals (COP15).
Identifying and characterizing these forest ecosystems is essential for effective management.
Dominant tree species are proposed as reliable indicators for delineating forest ecosystems.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a replicable national approach for identifying and characterizing forest ecosystems, emphasizing secondary forests.
To test the hypothesis that dominant tree species indicate forest ecosystem types and biodiversity.
To assess the distribution and role of secondary forests within identified ecosystems.

Main Methods:

Hierarchical clustering of national forest inventory data based on dominant species abundance (Importance Variable Index).
Object-oriented Random Forest modeling using NDVI, Sentinel-2 spectral data, and environmental variables.
Characterization of identified clusters using species assemblages, interactions, and ecological factors.

Main Results:

Successfully modeled 7 main forest ecosystem clusters in Costa Rica from 10 identified in situ clusters.
The model achieved an F1-score of 0.73 and macro F1-score of 0.58.
Ecosystems were characterized by distinct dominant species, topography, climate, and vegetation dynamics, aligning with local classifications.

Conclusions:

Dominant tree species effectively delineate forest ecosystems and biodiversity complexity.
The approach provides insights into secondary forest distribution and ecosystem vulnerability.
In situ data acquisition remains a significant challenge for national-scale forest ecosystem assessments.