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Glial Cells

Glial Cells

Neurulation

Neurulation

Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the...

Nervous Tissue: Glial Cells

Nervous Tissue: Glial Cells

Glia, or neuroglia, are vital support cells that assist neurons in their functions. The term "glia" originates from the Greek word for "glue," reflecting their role in holding the nervous system together. These cells can be categorized into six types: four in the central nervous system (CNS) and two in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS glial cell includes the astrocytes, the oligodendrocytes, the microglia, and the ependymal cells.
Astrocytes are star-shaped glial...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 11, 2026

Lineage Tracing and Clonal Analysis in Developing Cerebral Cortex Using Mosaic Analysis with Double Markers MADM

Lineage Tracing and Clonal Analysis in Developing Cerebral Cortex Using Mosaic Analysis with Double Markers MADM

Published on: May 8, 2020

Shaping the Neocortex: Radial Glia and Astrocytes in Development and Evolution.

Federica Mosti^1,2, Hiroshi Kawasaki³, Courtney Babbit⁴

¹Departments of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Durham, North Carolina 27710.

The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience

|November 12, 2025

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Radial glia (RG) and astrocytes drove neocortical expansion in primates. Human-specific genes and astrocyte evolution reveal cellular innovations shaping primate and human brains.

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Evolutionary Biology
Comparative Genomics

Background:

Mammalian neocortex expansion, particularly in primates, is key to advanced cognition.
This expansion involves increased size, neuronal output, and structural adaptations like folding and glial complexity.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the roles of radial glia (RG) and astrocytes in neocortical expansion and evolution.
To highlight genetic, epigenetic, and cellular mechanisms driving these changes, especially in primates and humans.

Main Methods:

Review of comparative transcriptomic and morphological studies.
Analysis of primate- and human-specific genes.
Examination of epigenetic regulation and chromatin architecture.

Main Results:

Primate-specific genes enhance RG proliferation and neurogenesis.
RG morphology facilitates access to extrinsic signals, boosting proliferation and complexity.
Astrocytes play roles in cortical folding and brain homeostasis.
Human astrocytes show unique molecular signatures, metabolic capacity, and morphological complexity.

Conclusions:

RG and astrocytes are central to neocortical evolution and expansion.
Cellular innovations, including primate-specific genes and astrocyte adaptations, shaped the modern primate and human brain.