Modeling Glioblastoma with Brain Organoids: New Frontiers in Oncology and Space Research

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant primary brain tumor, characterized by extensive heterogeneity, invasiveness, infiltrating behavior, and resistance to standard therapies, including radiation and temozolomide (TMZ). Despite considerable efforts in investigating its pathophysiology, GBM represents one of the most challenging cancers to treat, with a median survival rate under 15 months and a 5-year survival rate below 5%. A major barrier to progress in GBM therapy development is the lack of reliable preclinical models that faithfully recapitulate the tumor's molecular heterogeneity, invasive behavior, and complex microenvironment. Traditional cell lines and xenograft models often fail to reflect the key pathological features of human GBM, including immune suppression, vascular abnormalities, and treatment resistance. In recent years, attention has focused on the development of numerous clinically relevant GBM models based on brain organoids as a powerful "disease-in-a-dish" model. They strongly mimic GBM key histopathological and molecular features, such as the tumor's cellular heterogeneity, genetic landscape, and microenvironment, enabling more accurate studies of tumor biology, invasion, and therapeutic response in a controlled in vitro setting. Notably, research in microgravity offers a unique and promising platform to study cancer biology under conditions that enhance tissue self-organization, mimic aspects of tumor growth, and potentially unveil novel therapeutic vulnerabilities. This review compares organoids to conventional preclinical models, tracing their historical development and salient features, focusing on the preparation and use of organoids in GBM research. We also introduce a novel and promising field of organoid application: space-based organoid brain research.