Sustainable recovery: Life cycle assessment for lithium-ion battery recycling

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has led significant increase in spent lithium-ion batteries (LiBs), whereas the end-of-life (EoL) management of the spent LiBs have aroused global concerns due to the substantial impacts on resource conservation, environmental pollution, and economic benefits. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of key sustainable recycling methods that have the potentials to mitigate the environmental and resource impacts of spent LiBs from a life cycle perspective. The research reviews pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling technologies, evaluating their current development state from laboratory trials to commercial applications, and comparing their life cycle environmental and resource impacts. The findings underscore the importance of integrating circular economy principles and developing robust regulatory frameworks to ensure the sustainable recovery and reuse of materials, thereby securing the supply of critical resources and maintaining environmental safety. Additionally, the study highlights the need for market incentives and institutional measures to accelerate the advancement of recycling technologies with high potential, enabling the realization of comprehensive market, resource, and environmental benefits.