Concrete exposed to seawater can undergo degradation like the dissolution of ettringite and gypsum, increasing the material's porosity and decreasing its strength. In contrast, the crystallization of salts within the concrete's pores can cause expansion, particularly above the waterline where evaporation occurs. Nonetheless, this expansion only happens when seawater, enabled by the concrete's permeability, manages to infiltrate the structure.
Concrete in areas between tide marks,...

Atmospheric CO2 penetrates the concrete's pores and, in the presence of moisture, forms carbonic acid, which then reacts with calcium hydroxide in the hydrated cement, forming calcium carbonate. This process reduces the concrete's volume and is termed carbonation shrinkage.
The concrete's permeability is slightly reduced as calcium carbonate produced during the reaction fills its pores. Furthermore, its strength is slightly enhanced as the water released during the reaction...

Shrinkage in concrete is primarily due to water loss from evaporation, hydration of cement, or carbonation, leading to a reduction in volume. The volumetric contraction results in volumetric strain in concrete. However, in practice, shrinkage is measured as linear strain, which is one-third of the volumetric strain.
When concrete is still in its plastic state, it can undergo a decrease in volume by about 1% of its absolute volume. This decrease is known as plastic shrinkage. It arises either...

Deleterious substances in aggregates can be detrimental to the quality and durability of concrete. These substances include organic impurities like loam, which interfere with cement hydration and are usually present in the sand. These prevent a good bond between aggregate and cement paste. Organic impurities can be detected using the colorimetric test, where the darkness of a solution after agitation indicates the level of organic content.
Another type of impurity is clay and fine material that...

The slump test is a widely used method to measure the workability of concrete. It employs a 12-inch high truncated cone mold that tapers from eight inches at the base to four inches at the top. Before testing, the mold is securely attached to a flat base and dampened.
Concrete is poured into the mold in three layers to conduct the test. Each layer is compacted 25 times with a steel tamping rod, which has a five-eighths-inch diameter and a rounded end, to ensure even distribution and eliminate...

Microcracking in concrete refers to the tiny cracks that can form within the material even before any external load is applied. These microcracks typically occur at the interface between the coarse aggregate and the hydrated cement paste, often as a result of differential volume changes prompted by variations in stress-strain behavior, as well as thermal and moisture movement. Initially, these microcracks remain stable and do not grow substantially until the concrete is stressed to about 30...