Engineering Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors for antimicrobial applications: synthetic strategies, mechanistic insights, and...

Bacterial infections pose a critical threat to global public health, but the overuse of antibiotics exacerbates antimicrobial resistance, urgently necessitating alternative antibacterial strategies. Nanoreactors, as innovative nanoplatforms capable of generating antibacterial effects through physical or chemical mechanisms independent of traditional antibiotics, offer a viable pathway to circumvent such resistance. This review systematically examines recent advances in Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors for antibacterial applications, covering synthesis methods, modification strategies, antibacterial mechanisms, and potential uses. A key challenge lies in enhancing Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors' catalytic activity and biocompatibility under physiological conditions. It highlights that tailoring the morphology and electronic structure (doping, defect engineering or heterojunction construction) can effectively bolster the antibacterial efficacy of Bi₂S₃. The review further emphasizes the multiple antibacterial mechanisms of Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors, including physical damage, chemical action and immunomodulatory effects, which boast advantages such as high efficiency, low toxicity, and multi-functional synergy. This work seeks to comprehensively synthesize the current state of Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors in antibacterial applications, while identifying key challenges in optimizing synthesis processes, enhancing stability, and advancing clinical translation. Moreover, it underscores the potential of Bi₂S₃-based nanoreactors as a next-generation antibacterial agent, offering theoretical frameworks to facilitate its clinical adoption and innovative solutions to address the global antibiotic resistance crisis.