Bridging biology and therapy: translational advances of extracellular vesicles in veterinary clinical practice

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound particles released by numerous cell types and are gaining popularity in veterinary medicine due to their extensive biological activities and therapeutic potential. This review summarizes the classification, biogenesis, and molecular cargo of various types of EVs, such as exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, as well as their emerging roles in cellular communication, diagnostics, and therapeutics across a wide range of veterinary applications. Beyond mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived EVs, EVs from immune cells, pathogens, and body fluids show great promise for tissue healing, immunological regulation, infectious disease management, drug delivery systems, vaccine development, and reproductive health. We critically evaluate recent advancements, limitations, and future possibilities in using EVs to improve diagnosis and treatment results in veterinary species. The review's goal is to provide a comprehensive picture of the rapidly increasing EV landscape and to make it easier to incorporate EV-based technology into clinical veterinary practice.