The impact of time-restricted eating/feeding and physical exercise on gut microbiota diversity and functionality: A...

Background: Time-restricted eating/feeding (TRE/TRF) and physical exercise are promising nonpharmacological strategies to improve gut microbiota composition, diversity, and functionality. Aim: This review examines the independent and potential synergistic effects of TRE/TRF and various exercise modalities on gut microbiota, with a focus on underlying mechanisms and associated health outcomes. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles published between 2015 and 2024. Keywords included terms related to intermittent fasting, TRE, TRF, physical exercise, and gut microbiota. Eligible studies involved human or animal models and examined primary outcomes, including gut microbiota diversity, composition, and metabolic outcomes. Results: The TRE/TRF has been shown to positively influence microbial diurnal rhythms, enhance microbial diversity, and increase beneficial bacteria such as Akkermansia muciniphila. Exercise, particularly aerobic and resistance training, enhances both α- and β-diversity, stimulates the proliferation of short-chain fatty acid producing and anti-inflammatory bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Roseburia, and improves gut barrier integrity. However, findings from human studies remain heterogeneous and are influenced by intervention timing, participant characteristics, and dietary patterns. Limited evidence exists on the combined effects of TRE/TRF and exercise, but preliminary data suggest potential synergistic benefits, particularly in improving microbial diversity and metabolic outcomes. Conclusion: The TRE/TRF and exercise represent promising, nonpharmacological strategies for enhancing gut microbiota and supporting metabolic health. While individual effects are supported by robust preclinical and clinical evidence, research on their combined impact remains scarce.