Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances contamination in dairy: A global perspective

Dairy products, valued for their essential nutritional contributions, are increasingly recognized as potential vectors for the bioaccumulation of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), raising global concern due to the environmental persistence and health risks associated with these compounds. These chemicals enter the dairy supply chain through various environmental and industrial pathways. This review investigates the sources of PFAS contamination in dairy, the associated health risks, analytical techniques for detection, and existing regulatory frameworks. PFAS contamination in dairy products occurs through multiple pathways, including ingestion of contaminated water, leaching from food-contact packaging materials, and exposure to fluoropolymer-coated processing equipment. The concentration of PFAS in milk and dairy products varies considerably depending on geographic region, production practices, and product type. PFOS levels in milk have been reported to range from 0.003 ng/mL in Norway to 0.0245 ng/mL in China. In Korea, PFOS and PFOA concentrations in milk products range from 0.09 to 7.27 ng/mL. Composite dairy products such as cheese and butter have demonstrated PFAS levels as high as 13.34 ng/mL, likely due to concentration during processing. Infant formulas have also shown PFAS contamination, with concentrations reaching up to 5.74 ng/mL. Notably, cheese and yogurt tend to exhibit higher PFAS levels than milk, influenced by production processes and fat content, which can affect PFAS partitioning and retention. PFAS compounds have been linked to a range of adverse health outcomes, including carcinogenesis, immunotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and developmental impairments, with heightened susceptibility in infants and vulnerable populations. Globally, regulatory measures to control PFAS contamination vary, with some countries establishing strict limits on their concentration in food products. However, inconsistencies in regulatory approaches hinder effective global management of PFAS risks. This review suggests the urgent need for comprehensive monitoring and regulatory strategies to address PFAS contamination in dairy products, safeguarding public health and environmental sustainability.