Brain-Computer Interfaces in the Rehabilitation of Stroke and Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and...

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have emerged as innovative tools for neurorehabilitation, enabling patients with stroke and spinal cord injury (SCI) to engage in task-specific training through direct neural control of external devices. Despite growing evidence, the overall clinical efficacy of BCIs in functional recovery remains debated. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effectiveness of BCI-based rehabilitation on motor recovery in stroke and SCI, with a focus on upper and lower limb function. We systematically searched PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane CENTRAL for clinical trials published between January 2008 and October 2025, following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. Eligible studies included randomized controlled trials and controlled interventional trials employing BCI interventions for motor rehabilitation. Risk of bias was assessed with RoB-2 and ROBINS-I. Meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising both stroke (acute, subacute, and chronic phases) and SCI populations. The pooled analysis demonstrated a significant mean difference of 3.26 points on the Fugl-Meyer Assessment for Upper Extremity (FMA-UE) in favour of BCI interventions (95% CI: 2.73-3.78, p < 0.001). Heterogeneity was negligible (I² = 0%). Subgroup analyses suggested that combining BCI with functional electrical stimulation or robotics yielded larger gains. BCI-based rehabilitation significantly improves motor function in stroke and SCI populations, with effect sizes exceeding the minimal clinically important difference for FMA-UE. These findings highlight the translational potential of BCIs as adjunctive therapies in neurorehabilitation. Larger, multicenter trials with standardised protocols are warranted to establish long-term efficacy and guide clinical integration.