Eco-epidemiology of arbovirus infections among non-human primates in Southeastern Brazil

Orthoflaviviruses and alphaviruses are arboviruses responsible for human diseases in tropical and subtropical countries. We aimed to detect infections with arboviruses and to evaluate the ecological patterns related to these infections among non-human primates (NHPs) in southeastern Brazil. Of the 248 molecularly screened NHPs, 30 were infected with orthoflaviviruses, which highlighted hotspots of arboviruses. We identified genome fragments of orthoflaviviruses Orthoflavivirus denguei 1 (DENV-1), 2 (DENV-2) and 3 (DENV-3), Orthoflavivirus louisense (SLEV), Orthoflavivirus zikaense (ZIKV), and Orthoflavivirus flavi (YFV). No alphaviruses were detected. Amid a human outbreak of YFV, black-tufted marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) was identified as being infected. SLEV and ZIKV were found in saliva samples and rectal swabs obtained from NHPs, a potential route for non-vector transmission of these viruses. This is the first report of infection with SLEV in the golden-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas) as well as coinfections with ZIKV and DENV-3 in C. penicillata and with ZIKV and SLEV in black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya). The isolation of ZIKV and SLEV from the saliva of NHPs may suggest an alternative mechanism for the maintenance of these viruses within NHP communities, in addition to the conventional transmission by mosquitoes. These findings are fundamental to support public health policy decisions and to foster ongoing eco-epidemiological surveillance of arboviruses in the context of the human-animal interface.