3D printing of cellulose-based biopolymers: Materials, processing strategies, and biomedical applications

The three-dimensional (3D) printing technique has garnered significant attention in biomedical engineering due to its ability to fabricate structurally complex, functionally tailored, and patient-specific constructs. Among various biomaterials, cellulose and its derivatives have received considerable interest due to their superior biocompatibility, biodegradability, renewability, and chemical functionality. This review provides a comprehensive and critical assessment of recent progress in the 3D printing of cellulose and its derivatives, with a particular focus on material aspects, formulation strategies, and biomedical applications. Major cellulose derivatives, such as carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, and cellulose acetate, are evaluated in terms of their rheological properties, crosslinking mechanisms, and printability using various printing techniques. This review discusses the current progress in designing cellulose-based composite inks by incorporating functional nanomaterials, polymers, and bioactive agents to enhance mechanical strength, printability, and functionality. Bone regeneration, wound healing, drug delivery, and patient-specific biomanufacturing are particularly emphasized for biomedical applications. This review also highlights current challenges and future perspectives in developing cellulose-based bioinks for clinical translation in regenerative medicine and biomedical device manufacturing.