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Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkenes

Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkenes

Alkenes react with water in the presence of an acid to form an alcohol. In the absence of acid, hydration of alkenes does not occur at a significant rate, and the acid is not consumed in the reaction. Therefore, alkene hydration is an acid-catalyzed reaction.

Radical Reactivity: Overview

Radical Reactivity: Overview

Radicals, the highly reactive species, gain stability by undergoing three different reactions. The first reaction involves a radical-radical coupling, in which a radical combines with another radical, forming a spin‐paired molecule. The second reaction is between a radical and a spin‐paired molecule, generating a new radical and a new spin‐paired molecule. The third reaction is radical decomposition in a unimolecular reaction, forming a new radical and a spin‐paired...

Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation

Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation

An oxygen-based nucleophile, like water, can undergo addition reactions with aldehydes and ketones. The reaction leads to the formation of hydrates, also referred to as 1,1-diols or geminal diols.
The formation of hydrates is a reversible reaction. Hydrate formation is influenced by steric and electronic factors accompanying the alkyl substituents on the carbonyl group: The rate of hydrate formation increases with a decrease in the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon. Hence,...

Regioselectivity and Stereochemistry of Acid-Catalyzed Hydration

Regioselectivity and Stereochemistry of Acid-Catalyzed Hydration

The rate of acid-catalyzed hydration of alkenes depends on the alkene's structure, as the presence of alkyl substituents at the double bond can significantly influence the rate.

Reactivity of Enolate Ions

Reactivity of Enolate Ions

Enolate ions are formed by the acid–base reaction of a carbonyl compound with a base. This leads to deprotonation of the α hydrogen atom, leading to a resonance-stabilized enolate ion where one of the contributing structures is an oxyanion, which imparts additional stability. Therefore, the proton on the α carbon is more acidic in nature than that of other sp3-hybridized C–H bonds but less acidic than those in O–H bonds where the negative charge in the conjugate...

Alkynes to Aldehydes and Ketones: Acid-Catalyzed Hydration

Alkynes to Aldehydes and Ketones: Acid-Catalyzed Hydration

Introduction
Analogous to alkenes, alkynes also undergo acid-catalyzed hydration. While the addition of water to an alkene gives an alcohol, hydration of alkynes produces different products such as aldehydes and ketones.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 10, 2026

Protein Film Infrared Electrochemistry Demonstrated for Study of H2 Oxidation by a [NiFe] Hydrogenase

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Published on: December 4, 2017

Reactivity of the Hydrated Electron.

David M Bartels¹, Ward H Thompson²

¹Radiation Laboratory and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA;

Annual Review of Physical Chemistry

|November 21, 2025

Summary

A working theory for hydrated electron reaction rates is missing, despite their importance in radiation and water environments. Recent computational advances aid in understanding these reactions and their products.

Keywords:

Marcus theory ab initio molecular dynamics dielectron hydrated electron reaction rates

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Electrochemical Detection of Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect on Extracellular Electron Transport in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Electrochemical Detection of Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect on Extracellular Electron Transport in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Published on: April 16, 2018

Area of Science:

Physical Chemistry
Radiation Chemistry
Chemical Kinetics

Background:

Hydrated electrons (e⁻)aq are ubiquitous in radiation, photochemical, and electrochemical environments involving liquid water.
Their reaction products and rate constants are crucial for various applications.
Despite extensive data, a comprehensive theoretical framework for hydrated electron reaction rates is lacking.

Purpose of the Study:

To address the absence of a working theory for hydrated electron reaction rates.
To connect experimental observations with theoretical and simulation advancements.
To explore the factors influencing hydrated electron reaction kinetics.

Main Methods:

Review of key experimental observations of hydrated electron reactions.
Discussion of recent theoretical and computational simulation developments.
Analysis of the impact of increasing computational power on understanding reaction mechanisms.

Main Results:

Experimental data on hydrated electron reactions are abundant due to their strong optical absorbance.
Progress in theoretical and simulation methods is enabling a deeper understanding of reaction dynamics.
Computational power is a key enabler for developing predictive models.

Conclusions:

Understanding hydrated electron reaction rates requires bridging experimental findings with advanced theoretical and computational approaches.
Future research should leverage computational power to develop and validate theories of hydrated electron reactivity.
The development of a working theory is essential for accurate predictions in relevant applications.