Knowledge-informed multimodal cfDNA analysis improves sensitivity and generalization in cancer detection

Liquid biopsy offers a minimally invasive opportunity to detect and monitor cancers through analysis of cell-free DNA (cfDNA). However, current approaches face challenges of limited sensitivity at low tumor fractions, technical variability, and poor generalization across cohorts. Tumor-informed targeted methods offer high specificity but suffer from low sensitivity due to random sampling, tumor evolution and adaptation (including resistance mechanisms), and other sources of heterogeneity. Conversely, tumor-naive genome-wide methods can increase sensitivity but often sacrifice specificity, particularly at low tumor fractions. We developed Fragmentomics Analysis for Tumor Evaluation with AI (Fate-AI), a multimodal framework that integrates fragmentomic and methylation-derived features from low-pass whole-genome sequencing (LPWGS) and cell-free methylated DNA immunoprecipitation and high-throughput sequencing (cfMeDIP-seq). It employs a knowledge-informed strategy to select recurrently altered genomic regions and tissue-specific methylation loci to combine the advantages of tumor-naive approaches with the specificity of tumor-informed approaches. This approach derives robust per-sample normalized features that mitigate batch effects and enhance cross-cohort reproducibility. We evaluated Fate-AI on a total of 1,219 plasma samples spanning ten cancer types and healthy controls from multiple laboratories and sequencing centers, including 432 newly profiled cases (280 with both cfMeDIP-seq and LPWGS) together with 787 samples from four independent public datasets. Fate-AI achieved superior sensitivity and specificity compared to state-of-the-art methods, detecting tumor-derived signals at fractions as low as 10^-5 in experimental dilutions. Fate-AI scores correlated with disease stage and tracked longitudinal progression, anticipating relapse months before clinical progression. Furthermore, Fate-AI enabled tissue-of-origin classification, with AUCs ranging from 0.84 to 0.97 across six cancer types. Collectively, our results demonstrate that Fate-AI provides a sensitive, generalizable, and clinically actionable platform for early detection, minimal residual disease monitoring, and tissue-of-origin classification, supporting its potential as a liquid biopsy framework in precision oncology.