Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jan 10, 2026

Adapting Human Videofluoroscopic Swallow Study Methods to Detect and Characterize Dysphagia in Murine Disease Models
Published on: March 1, 2015
Pathophysiology and Etiology of Brainstem-Related Dysphagia
Lucia D'Alatri1,2, Maria Raffaella Marchese1, Angelo Tizio2
1Unit of Otorhinolaryngology, A. Gemelli University Hospital Foundation IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy.
Background:
Brainstem-related dysphagia represents a complex and severe form of neurogenic dysphagia (ND) arising from lesions that disrupt the central pattern generator (CPG) for swallowing located in the medulla oblongata.
Methods:
This paper explores the physiological basis of swallowing and its disruption in various brainstem pathologies.
Results:
The clinical presentation and electrophysiological evaluation of dysphagia are discussed, with a focus on volitional and spontaneous swallowing (SS) and the use of electromyography (EMG)-based assessment techniques.
Conclusions:
Finally, therapeutic strategies are reviewed, including conventional rehabilitative methods, neuromuscular electrical stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, and invasive procedures such as neurobotulinum toxin-A (BoNT-A) injections, balloon dilation, and CP myotomy.
Related Concept Videos
Physiology of the Gastrointestinal System I: Ingestion and Propulsion
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease I: Meaning and Pathophysiology
Esophageal Strictures-I: Introduction
Etiology
The primary cause of esophageal strictures is long-standing gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), accounting for about 70 to 80% of adult cases. Chronic acid reflux can lead to injury and scarring of the esophageal lining, culminating in...
Anatomy of Respiratory System I: Upper Respiratory Tract
Nose and nasal cavity
The nose and nasal cavity represent the main external openings of the respiratory tract....
Deglutition
Swallowing can be divided into three stages: the voluntary phase, the pharyngeal phase, and the esophageal phase. Although the...
Brainstem
The Midbrain
The midbrain is located beneath the diencephalon and connects the cerebrum with the lower parts of the brain. The cerebral peduncles are prominent midbrain structures that house the...

