Nanoarchitectured molybdenum oxide nanozymes: from fabrication strategies to theranostic application

Nanoarchitectured molybdenum oxides (MoO_x) have emerged as promising artificial enzymes, capable of mimicking a broad range of enzymatic activities, including oxidase, peroxidase, catalase, and sulfite oxidase, owing to their unique physicochemical properties such as variable oxidation states, tunable electronic structures, and pH-responsive biodegradability. In addition, MoO_x-based systems demonstrate strong photoresponsiveness, enabling the synergistic integration of enzymatic catalysis with photothermal (PTT) or photodynamic (PDT) therapies under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation. Their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability further highlight their potential for biomedical applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the design, synthesis, and bioapplications of MoO_x nanozymes, with an emphasis on their structural versatility and multifunctional therapeutic capabilities. Through strategies such as defect engineering, surface functionalization, and heteroatom doping, the enzyme-mimicking activities of MoO_x nanozymes can be finely tuned, enabling outstanding performance in biosensing, antitumor and antimicrobial therapies, and antioxidation. Finally, the review outlines the prospects and key challenges in translating these innovative nanoplatforms into clinical applications.