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Related Concept Videos

Olfactory Receptors: Location and Structure01:03

Olfactory Receptors: Location and Structure

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The process of olfaction, also known as the sense of smell, is a sophisticated chemical response system. The specialized sensory neurons that facilitate this process, known as olfactory receptor neurons, are situated in an upper segment of the nasal cavity, known as the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory sensory neurons are bipolar, with their dendrites extending from the epithelium's apex into the mucus that lines the nasal cavity. Airborne molecules, when inhaled, traverse the olfactory...
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The sense of smell is achieved through the activities of the olfactory system. It starts when an airborne odorant enters the nasal cavity and reaches olfactory epithelium (OE). The OE is protected by a thin layer of mucus, which also serves the purpose of dissolving more complex compounds into simpler chemical odorants. The size of the OE and the density of sensory neurons varies among species; in humans, the OE is only about 9-10 cm2.
The olfactory receptors are embedded in the cilia of the...
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Physiology of Smell and Olfactory Pathway01:20

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Humans detect odors with the help of specialized cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, called olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). ORNs possess hair-like structures called cilia, which are receptive to sensations from the inhaled air. When an odorant molecule binds to a specific receptor on the cell of the cilia, it leads to a series of events that ultimately cause the ORN to send electrical signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain through the olfactory nerves.
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Cranial nerves are responsible for transmitting motor and sensory information between the brain and various parts of the body. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves, with the first six being essential in sensory perception, motor control, and autonomic functions related to the head and neck.
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Sensory systems detect stimuli—such as light and sound waves—and transduce them into neural signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system. In addition to external stimuli detected by the senses, some sensory systems detect internal stimuli—such as the proprioceptors in muscles and tendons that send feedback about limb position.
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Visual agnosia is a condition characterized by the inability to recognize visually presented objects despite having normal vision. For instance, a person with visual agnosia can describe the shape and color of an object but cannot identify or name it. This impairment does not affect their visual field, acuity, color vision, brightness discrimination, language, or memory. An example of this condition in a social setting is someone at a dinner party asking for "that silver thing with a round...
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Sensory network dysregulation in type 2 diabetes: Linking olfactory, visual, and cognitive function.

Qian Li1, Xin Li1,2,3, Yan Bi4

  • 1Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.

Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism
|November 25, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Olfactory dysfunction significantly links multisensory impairment to cognitive decline in Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Preserving sensory networks may support cognitive and olfactory health in T2D patients.

Keywords:
cognitive impairmentcross‐modal networksdiabetic peripheral neuropathydiabetic retinopathyfunctional connectivityolfactory dysfunctiontype 2 diabetes

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Endocrinology
  • Gerontology

Background:

  • Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is linked to multisensory and cognitive impairments.
  • Olfactory dysfunction is a common complication in T2D.
  • The interplay between sensory deficits and cognitive decline in T2D requires further investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relationship between visual, somatosensory, and olfactory dysfunction and cognitive decline in T2D.
  • To examine the mediating role of olfactory dysfunction in this relationship.
  • To explore the impact of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) on these associations.

Main Methods:

  • Resting-state fMRI was used to assess functional connectivity in sensory cortices and regional brain activity in 152 T2D patients and 50 controls.
  • A Multisensory Dysfunction Index (MSDI) was developed to quantify integrated sensory dysfunction.
  • Moderated mediation analysis examined the influence of sensory complications on cognitive function (MoCA).

Main Results:

  • The MSDI correlated with sensory complication burden and predicted worse global cognitive performance (MoCA).
  • Odour identification mediated the link between MSDI and MoCA in T2D patients.
  • This mediation was absent in individuals with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN)+ but significant in DPN- individuals, where olfactory dysfunction also had direct effects on cognition.

Conclusions:

  • Olfactory dysfunction plays a central role in connecting multisensory impairment to cognitive decline in T2D.
  • Management strategies should consider individual sensory complications.
  • Maintaining sensory network integrity may be crucial for preserving olfactory and cognitive health in T2D.