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Some of Mendel’s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A trihybrid cross is a combination of three individual monohybrid crosses. For example, plant height (tall vs. short), seed shape (round vs. wrinkled), and seed color (yellow vs. green).
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Polytene chromosomes are giant interphase chromosomes with several DNA strands placed side by side. They were discovered in the year 1881 by Balbiani in salivary glands, intestine, muscles, malpighian tubules, and hypoderm of larvae Chironomus plumosus. Hence, these are also called "Salivary gland chromosomes." These are found in insects of the order Diptera and Collembola; in certain organs of mammals; and synergids, antipodes of flowering plants. Polytene chromosomes are also...
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Unlike mitosis, meiosis aims for genetic diversity in its creation of haploid gametes. Dividing germ cells first begin this process in prophase I, where each chromosome—replicated in S phase—is now composed of two sister chromatids (identical copies) joined centrally.
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Crossing over is the exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis I. Genetic recombination gives rise to allelic diversity in the newly formed daughter cells. In humans, crossing over produces genetically distinct haploid egg and sperm cells that undergo fertilization to produce unique offspring. Before cell division starts, the germ cell’s chromosome(s) undergo duplication in the S phase of the cell cycle. As the cells enter prophase I,...
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Meiosis II is the second and final stage of meiosis. It relies on the haploid cells produced during meiosis I, each of which contain only 23 chromosomes—one from each homologous initial pair. Importantly, each chromosome in these cells is composed of two joined copies, and when these cells enter meiosis II, the goal is to separate such sister chromatids using the same microtubule-based network employed in other division processes. The result of meiosis II is two haploid cells, each...
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Creating New Forms of Hexaploid Triticale Associating Complete R and D Genomes.

Michel Bernard1, Sylvie Bernard1, Ekaterina Badaeva2

  • 1Department of Genetics, Diversity and Ecophysiology of Cereals, Institut National pour la Recherche Agronomique et l'Environnement (INRAE), 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.

Biology
|November 27, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Researchers improved triticale (a man-made cereal) by introducing wheat chromosomes. New triticale lines with enhanced genomes offer significant genetic and breeding potential for crop improvement.

Keywords:
Aegilops tauschiiD genomeFISHchromosomesevolutionintrogressionpolyploidyryetriticalewheat

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Area of Science:

  • Plant genetics and breeding
  • Agricultural science
  • Cytogenetics

Background:

  • Triticale, a synthetic cereal (genomic structure AA BB RR), faces limitations in agricultural and technological performance compared to wheat.
  • Existing triticale cultivars require improvement to meet breeding objectives, particularly in challenging environments.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To enhance modern triticale varieties through targeted introgression of genes and chromosomes from wheat, specifically the D genome.
  • To develop novel hexaploid triticale lines with improved agronomic stability and desirable technological characteristics.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized bridge crossings and embryo culture techniques under cytogenetic control.
  • Introduced the complete D sub-genome from wheat into triticale.
  • Generated stable hexaploid lines with mixed A and B genome chromosomes alongside the R genome.

Main Results:

  • Successfully produced stable hexaploid triticale lines incorporating the D sub-genome from wheat.
  • These new lines possess a complete R sub-genome and a mixed A/B genome composition.
  • The introgression lines exhibit reasonable agronomic stability and demonstrate genome organization flexibility.

Conclusions:

  • Targeted introgression of wheat chromosomes, particularly the D genome, is a viable strategy for improving triticale.
  • The developed introgression lines offer significant genetic resources for future crop optimization and breeding.
  • These findings highlight the potential for further regulatory and genetic advancements in triticale.