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The high insolubility of some precipitates can result in an unfavorable relative supersaturation. This can lead to colloidal particles with a large surface-to-mass ratio, where adsorption is promoted. For instance, in the precipitation of silver chloride, silver ions are adsorbed on the surface of the colloidal particles, forming a primary layer. This layer attracts ions of opposite charge (such as nitrate ions), forming a diffuse secondary layer of adsorbed ions. This electric double layer...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 18, 2026

Fabricating Superhydrophobic Polymeric Materials for Biomedical Applications

Fabricating Superhydrophobic Polymeric Materials for Biomedical Applications

Published on: August 28, 2015

Recyclable Palladium-Polysiloxane Catalyst with Ultra-Low Metal Leaching for Drug Synthesis.

Ekaterina A Golovenko¹, Polina P Petrova¹, Dmitrii V Pankin¹

¹Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, 7/9 Universitetskaya Nab., St. Petersburg 199034, Russia.

|November 27, 2025

Summary

A novel palladium-PDMS catalyst offers stable, year-long cross-coupling reactions for pharmaceuticals. It achieves ultra-low palladium contamination, meeting strict industry standards with high yields and recyclability.

Keywords:

DFT calculations Heck reaction Sonogashira reaction Suzuki reaction carbon support palladium-containing polysiloxanes reusable catalysts

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Preparation of Silver-Palladium Alloyed Nanoparticles for Plasmonic Catalysis under Visible-Light Illumination

Preparation of Silver-Palladium Alloyed Nanoparticles for Plasmonic Catalysis under Visible-Light Illumination

Published on: August 18, 2020

Area of Science:

Catalysis
Materials Science
Organic Chemistry

Background:

Cross-coupling reactions are vital in pharmaceutical synthesis.
Controlling metal contamination, especially palladium, is critical for drug safety.
Existing catalysts often require harsh conditions or toxic co-catalysts.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a stable, reusable palladium-based catalyst for pharmaceutical cross-coupling.
To achieve pharmaceutical-grade palladium contamination levels in products.
To demonstrate the catalyst's efficiency in key cross-coupling reactions under mild conditions.

Main Methods:

Synthesis of a carbon-supported palladium-polysiloxane (Pd-PDMS) macrocatalyst.
Testing catalytic activity in Suzuki, Sonogashira (copper-free), and Heck couplings.
Analysis of palladium contamination using ICP-MS (implied).
Characterization using SEM, XPS, and DFT calculations.

Main Results:

Pd-PDMS exhibited year-long stability at room temperature with full activity.
High yields achieved: Suzuki (80%), copper-free Sonogashira (90% at 55 °C), Heck (80% at 90 °C).
Palladium contamination was significantly below EMA limits: 22 ppb (Suzuki, Sonogashira) and 167 ppb (Heck).
Catalyst showed excellent recyclability over multiple cycles without activity loss.

Conclusions:

The developed Pd-PDMS catalyst offers a stable and efficient solution for pharmaceutical cross-coupling.
Ultra-low palladium contamination levels are achieved, surpassing regulatory requirements.
The catalyst's versatility, stability, and recyclability support sustainable pharmaceutical manufacturing.