Current Perspectives on Protein Supplementation in Athletes: General Guidance and Special Considerations for...

Proteins elicit various metabolic and physiological functions that are related to physical performance. Due to increased need in athletes, protein supplementation has been widely used to support recovery and performance. However, the extent to which acute gains in muscle protein synthesis translate into measurable performance remains debated. This narrative review synthesizes evidence from trials on supplemental proteins across resistance, endurance, and mixed-modality training, comparing sources (whey, casein, soy, pea, and blends). Moreover, this review summarizes dosing and timing strategies, with notes for master, diabetic, and female athletes. It is well-established that supplemental protein enhances fat-free mass and, to a lesser extent, strength when baseline dietary protein is suboptimal. However, the effects are smaller when habitual intake already meets athletic targets. Whey, as a rapid protein and rich in leucine, reliably elicits an acute anabolic response, while casein provides prolonged elevated aminoacidemia. When total intake and leucine thresholds are matched, plant proteins and blends can yield comparable long-term adaptations. In addition, studies showed that the distribution and strategic timing around exercise (post-exercise first, with optional pre-sleep casein or blends) support recovery during high-frequency training or energy deficit. Protein co-ingested with carbohydrate in endurance and high-intensity functional training (HIFT) can also help glycogen restoration and attenuate muscle-damage markers, though effects on sport outcomes are inconsistent. The evidence in diabetic athletes is limited; guidance extrapolates from diabetes and athlete studies, with benefits apparent when intake, quality, or distribution are limited. Furthermore, evidence indicates that anabolic resistance in master athletes requires higher per-meal doses and distribution, with post-exercise and pre-sleep feedings valuable. Consistently, female athletes partaking in aerobic and resistance training while supplementing with protein demonstrate desired body composition adaptations. Overall, although supplemental protein helps close gaps between intake and physiological demand, various factors may influence its regimen. Protein source may help the kinetics balance, amino-acid profile, and dietary preferences. Alternatively, timing may influence the protein effects on training and recovery.