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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 6, 2026

Lexical Decision Task for Studying Written Word Recognition in Adults with and without Dementia or Mild Cognitive Impairment

Lexical Decision Task for Studying Written Word Recognition in Adults with and without Dementia or Mild Cognitive Impairment

Published on: June 25, 2019

How time shapes letter position flexibility: Testing positional uncertainty and open bigram accounts.

Inka Romero-Ortells¹, Manuel Perea^2,3, Ana Baciero⁴

¹Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain.

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review

|December 2, 2025

Summary

The transposed-letter effect in reading diminishes over time, but residual orthographic overlap persists. This suggests reading involves both decaying positional uncertainty and stable sublexical codes.

Keywords:

Letter position coding Lexical access Word recognition

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Area of Science:

Cognitive Psychology
Psycholinguistics
Neuroscience of Language

Background:

The transposed-letter effect (e.g., CHOLOCATE vs. CHOCOLATE) is key to understanding orthographic processing in reading.
Positional uncertainty and open bigram models are two main theories explaining this effect.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate how the transposed-letter effect changes over time.
To differentiate between positional uncertainty and open bigram models.

Main Methods:

Two delayed lexical decision experiments were conducted.
Participants performed tasks at 750 ms and 1,500 ms delays.
Stimuli included transposed-letter nonwords (e.g., CHOLOCATE).

Main Results:

A significant transposed-letter effect was observed at 750 ms.
The effect reliably decreased at 1,500 ms, but did not vanish.
Experiment 2 confirmed the pattern with contrast manipulation.

Conclusions:

Positional uncertainty in orthographic processing decreases over time.
Residual effects suggest persistent sublexical orthographic codes (e.g., open bigrams).
Findings support hybrid models of reading that integrate perceptual and lexical factors.