Evaluation of Dry Printed Electrodes for Effective and Safe Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation

Contemporary gel electrodes, despite their widespread use in transcutaneous electrical stimulation, present limitations such as discomfort, gel dehydration, and time-consuming application. These constraints hinder their usability in practical or wearable stimulation settings. Soft and dry electrodes offer a promising alternative in skin electrophysiology. However, their effectiveness in transcutaneous electrical stimulation remains underexplored. This study compares gel and soft-dry electrodes during transcutaneous accessory nerve electrical stimulation in 12 healthy adults. Our results show that dry electrodes achieve similar stimulation thresholds for muscle activation (1.4 ± 1.1 vs. 1.8 ± 1.1 mA, p = 0.23) and shoulder movement induction (1.3 ± 1.0 vs. 1.7 ± 1.1 mA, p = 0.20) despite significant differences in electrode-skin impedance values. Thermal imaging confirmed safe operation without increased skin temperature, showing a maximum change of ± 0.3°C from baseline across different stimulation currents. Pain ratings also remained low and comparable (below 3 out of 10). These findings demonstrate the potential of dry electrodes for effective and comfortable transcutaneous stimulation applications targeting upper-body neuromodulation.Clinical relevanceWearable dry electrodes could enhance accessibility and adherence to neuromodulation therapies, particularly in applications requiring frequent or long-term use, by offering a convenient alternative to gel electrodes without compromising effectiveness or comfort.