Besnoitosis in Iran: An emerging parasitic threat to livestock and wildlife

Besnoitiosis is a chronic and emerging parasitic disease caused by protozoa belonging to the genus Besnoitia. The disease is economically and ecologically threatening livestock and wildlife in Iran. Besnoitia caprae infecting goats can lead to cyst formation in host tissues and cause reproductive symptoms, resulting in economic losses due to abortions and/or reduced productive efficiency. Its significance is particularly pronounced in provinces such as Fars and Kermanو attributed to high goat population density, climatic conditions favoring transmission, and specific animal husbandry practices. Despite limited research on the veterinary implications of Besnoitia besnoiti in cattle, it still presents an overarching threat, especially on the border with Iraq. The life cycle of this parasite is complex and includes production of oocysts by felids presumed to be the definitive hosts as well as several livestock and wildlife animals acting as intermediate hosts, including mechanical vectors such as Stomoxys calcitrans. The absence of a vaccine for besnoitiosis, limited treatment options for cases in animals, and the existence of wildlife reservoirs like rodents and wild ungulates, signifies a continuing challenge for this disease. Surveillance, molecular diagnostics, and collaborations at the level of provincial responsiveness all play foundational elements in removing or at least limiting the spread of this emerging disease. The objective of this review is to summarize and synthesize recently published studies to provide current knowledge on the epidemiology, molecular characterization, pathogenesis, transmission, diagnosis, and management of besnoitiosis in Iran. This focus is justified by the high infection rates (20-50 %) and substantial economic losses documented in Iranian goat herds, coupled with the emerging, cross-border threat of bovine besnoitiosis, against a backdrop of limited comprehensive national data. While governments and animal health services have many competing demands within a limited budget, besnoitiosis should not be ignored. In future, researchers should prioritize vaccine development, wildlife reservoir investigations, and economical diagnostics to ensure that livestock in every aspect of production is adequately protected in Iran (a significant portion of agricultural GDP). Filling these gaps is important to protect the economy of Iran and to avert emerging parasitism cross-borders.