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Related Concept Videos

Drug Biotransformation: Overview01:16

Drug Biotransformation: Overview

Pharmaceutical substances known as xenobiotics are predominantly lipophilic and nonionized. This enables them to permeate lipid bilayers, such as cell membranes, and interact with intracellular target receptors. Lipophilic drugs have an advantage in crossing biological barriers and reaching their intended sites of action. However, lipophilic drugs often have a restricted capacity for renal expulsion or elimination from the body. When these drugs enter the kidneys and undergo glomerular...
Drug Metabolism: Phase II Reactions01:14

Drug Metabolism: Phase II Reactions

Phase II reactions are essential for the detoxification and elimination of drugs from the body. These reactions involve the conjugation of parent drugs or their phase I metabolites with endogenous molecules, resulting in more hydrophilic drug conjugates. The primary conjugation reactions in this phase are sulfation and glucuronidation. Both sulfation and glucuronidation typically produce biologically inactive metabolites. However, in some cases involving prodrugs, active metabolites may be...
Drug Administration and Therapy Phases: Overview01:26

Drug Administration and Therapy Phases: Overview

Drugs, the chemical agents used in diagnosing, treating, or preventing diseases, undergo a four-phase process of development: pharmaceutic, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and therapeutic.
The pharmaceutical phase focuses on leveraging the physicochemical properties of the drug to design and manufacture an effective product. Variants include orally administered tablets or capsules, topical creams or ointments, and parenteral-delivery solutions or emulsions.
The pharmacokinetic phase...
Drug Biotransformation: Overview01:28

Drug Biotransformation: Overview

Biotransformation, also known as drug metabolism, is a vital physiological process that chemically alters drugs, facilitating their elimination from the body and terminating their action. This process involves two main phases: phase I and phase II reactions. Phase I reactions, including oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis, introduce or unmask polar functional groups on the drug molecule, thereby increasing its water solubility. By enhancing water solubility, the drug becomes more hydrophilic...
Phase I Reactions: Reductive Reactions01:27

Phase I Reactions: Reductive Reactions

Phase I biotransformation reductive reactions are chemical processes that modify drugs by introducing or revealing polar functional groups via reduction. Enzymes called reductases catalyze these reactions, playing a pivotal role in drug metabolism by transforming lipophilic drugs into more polar, water-soluble metabolites for easy excretion. An essential type of reductive reaction is the carbonyl group reduction, where aldehydes and ketones are reduced to alcohols. An example is the...
Pharmaceutical Alternatives: Polymorphic Form-Related and Particle Size-Related Therapeutic Nonequivalence01:27

Pharmaceutical Alternatives: Polymorphic Form-Related and Particle Size-Related Therapeutic Nonequivalence

Changes in polymorphic forms can significantly influence the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. Although the FDA defines pharmaceutical equivalence based on having the same active ingredient, dosage form, and route of administration, it does not automatically disqualify products with different polymorphic forms. This means two products with different polymorphs can still be deemed pharmaceutically equivalent. However, polymorphic differences can affect properties like wettability,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 15, 2026

Bioluminescence and Near-infrared Imaging of Optic Neuritis and Brain Inflammation in the EAE Model of Multiple Sclerosis in Mice
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Translational molecular imaging and drug development in multiple sclerosis.

Daniel Tay1, Hazem Ahmed2, Alyaa Dawoud3

  • 1Department of Biology and Applied Sciences, ETH Zurich, Otto-​Stern-Weg 1, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.

Theranostics
|December 8, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Molecular imaging, particularly positron emission tomography (PET), offers new ways to diagnose and monitor multiple sclerosis (MS). These advanced techniques target myelin, inflammation, and synaptic changes for better patient care.

Keywords:
demyelinationdrug developmentmultiple sclerosisneuroinflammationpositron emission tomography (PET)tracer developmenttranslational molecular imaging

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Radiology
  • Immunology

Background:

  • Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic CNS neurodegenerative disorder affecting young adults, characterized by demyelination.
  • Diagnosis relies on clinical data, MRI lesions, and cerebrospinal fluid oligoclonal bands.
  • Conventional MRI is crucial for MS diagnosis and monitoring, but advanced MRI methods are emerging.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the challenges and opportunities in translational molecular imaging for multiple sclerosis.
  • To highlight molecular concepts for diagnostic imaging, patient stratification, and therapy monitoring in MS.
  • To explore future developments in MS molecular imaging for improved patient care.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current and emerging molecular imaging techniques, including Positron Emission Tomography (PET).
  • Discussion of myelin-targeted probes, ligands for TSPO and CB2R to visualize neuroinflammation (microglial activation), and synaptic integrity tracers.
  • Analysis of how these techniques can complement conventional MRI in MS diagnosis and management.

Main Results:

  • PET imaging shows significant potential to advance MS diagnosis and management.
  • Myelin-targeted probes are under clinical evaluation for MS diagnosis and therapy monitoring.
  • TSPO and CB2R ligands visualize neuroinflammation, while other tracers assess synaptic integrity in MS.

Conclusions:

  • Molecular imaging, especially PET, offers promising avenues for diagnosing and monitoring MS.
  • Targeting myelin, neuroinflammation, and synaptic integrity provides new insights into MS pathophysiology.
  • Advancements in molecular imaging are crucial for personalized patient care and drug development in MS.