Nanotechnology in COVID-19 prevention, diagnosis, and treatment: a comprehensive review

The worst of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic may be over, but its impact continues to be felt worldwide. During the outbreak, medical regulatory authorities introduced several principles for outbreak control, with the World Health Organization emphasizing three key strategies: prevention, early detection, and treatment. In this context, technological advancements have played a critical role, particularly nanotechnology, which has emerged as a promising platform for medical innovation. Its applications span multiple sectors, including healthcare, environmental protection, and diagnostics. These applications offer unmatched potential to enhance personal protective equipment, develop antiviral surface coatings, and engineer rapid point-of-care diagnostics. Nanotechnology contributed significantly to combating COVID-19, enhancing prevention through nanofiber-enhanced masks and nanoparticle-based disinfectants; facilitating diagnosis via gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and magnetic nanoparticle biosensors, quantum dots, and artificial intelligence-integrated nanosensors; and supporting treatment efforts through lipid nanoparticle (LNP) vaccines, virus-like particles, and targeted drug delivery systems. We highlight key nanomaterials such as silver nanoparticles, copper nanoparticles, AuNPs, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and selenium nanoparticles, alongside advanced formulations like LNPs and polymeric nanocarriers, exploring their mechanisms of viral inactivation, sensitive detection, and controlled delivery of therapeutics. Furthermore, this review addresses critical regulatory and translational challenges and post-pandemic adaptations of nanotechnologies for emerging viral threats.