Microplastic pollution in rivers and lakes of India: Sources, ecotoxicological impacts, and removal strategies

Microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems, particularly the rivers and lakes of India, has emerged as a significant environmental concern. This review synthesises the current understanding of microplastic pollution in these vital water bodies, encompassing their diverse sources, the ecotoxicological impacts on aquatic biota with a specific focus on Indian species, and the array of removal strategies being explored. The escalating production and consumption of plastics globally have led to the widespread presence of microplastics in various environmental compartments, posing threats to ecological integrity and potentially human health. Indian rivers and lakes, crucial for water supply, agriculture, and biodiversity, are increasingly affected by microplastic contamination from anthropogenic activities, including industrial discharge, domestic waste, agricultural runoff, and tourism. Studies on the eco-toxicology show negative impacts on aquatic organisms, such as bioaccumulation, oxidative stress, histopathological alterations, decreased growth rates, and changed behaviour in fish and other aquatic invertebrates. Additionally, this review critically examines the current literature, highlighting the abundance, distribution, and characteristics of microplastics in Indian freshwater systems, their adverse effects on aquatic organisms, and the efficacy and sustainability of existing and emerging remediation techniques. This thorough investigation further emphasizes the importance of tackling microplastic pollution in India's freshwater systems and points out the necessity of integrated management strategies that incorporate better waste management, and advanced treatment technologies. It also identifying critical knowledge gaps and proposing directions for future research to address this complex and growing environmental challenge.