Nanomaterial-based biosensors for the early diagnosis of thyroid disease

Thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid cancer, pose significant diagnostic challenges because of their subtle clinical manifestations and heterogeneous biomarkers. Early and accurate detection is critical to prevent long-term complications and optimize therapeutic outcomes. Compared with conventional assays, nanomaterial-based biosensors have emerged as transformative tools in thyroid disease diagnostics, offering increased sensitivity, specificity, and miniaturization. This review highlights recent advances in the design and application of nanomaterials, including gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, and graphene derivatives, in biosensing platforms targeting thyroid hormones (T3, T4), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and autoantibodies. Mechanistic insights into signal transduction strategies such as electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric modalities are discussed, alongside integration with microfluidics and wearable technologies. Furthermore, we explore the translational potential of these biosensors in point-of-care testing, personalized medicine, and longitudinal monitoring of thyroid function. By bridging nanotechnology and endocrinology, nanomaterial-based biosensors offer a promising frontier for the early, noninvasive, and cost-effective diagnosis of thyroid diseases.