Benefits, concerns, and sustainable alternatives to genetically modified crops from a global and Indian perspective

The global population, set to exceed 10 billion by 2050, presents enormous challenges to food, health, nutrition, energy, and environmental security. Plant breeding methods have continuously evolved to develop improved crop varieties to meet these demands. Among the recent developments, genetically modified crops (GMCs) have emerged as a viable option to enhance crop yields, nutritional value, biofuel potential, and climatic adaptability. However, extensive application of GMCs is a very controversial subject due to biosafety issues, environmental impacts, economic viability, and legal considerations. This review presents a critical evaluation of the merits and limitations of GMCs, along with a discussion of available alternative approaches, with particular reference to the Indian context. While GMCs have been developed with increased yields, improved shelf life, reduced pesticide and herbicide use, and improved stress tolerance, potential risks such as health hazards and socioeconomic impacts on smallholding farmers in the developing world cannot be disregarded. Besides, regulatory policies and public perception have a significant influence on the acceptability and commercialization of GMCs, especially in countries like India. The discussion therefore encompasses other sustainable alternatives, including marker-assisted selection, genomics-aided breeding, cisgenesis, intragenesis, and stringently regulated gene editing, that embody environment-friendly approaches to agricultural enhancement. A collective assessment of these techniques is presented in order to examine their prospects for delivering long-term biosecurity without compromising environmental and human health. By integrating scientific advances, policy environments, and social perceptions, this review aims to present a balanced perspective of GMCs and their role in the future of global agriculture, particularly in the Global South.